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Thursday, June 7, 2012
How Nuclear Fallout Casts Doubt on Renewal of Some Adult Brain Cells
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Mind & Brain
A unique form of carbon dating, made possible by the Cold War, suggests that new neurons rarely survive in the human olfactory bulb after birth
?| June 7, 2012
In this groundbreaking adventure into the worlds of psychopaths, the renowned psychologist Kevin Dutton argues that there is a fine line between a brilliant...
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The human body is a tireless gardener, growing new cells throughout life in many organs?in the skin, blood, bones and intestines. Until the 1980s most scientists thought that brain cells were the exception: the neurons you are born with are the neurons you have for life. In the past three decades, however, researchers have discovered hints that the human brain produces new neurons after birth in two places: the hippocampus?a region important for memory?and the walls of fluid-filled cavities called ventricles, from which stem cells migrate to the olfactory bulb, a knob of brain tissue behind the eyes that processes smell. Studies have clearly demonstrated that such migration happens in mice long after birth and that human infants generate new neurons. But the evidence that similar neurogenesis persists in the adult human brain is mixed and highly contested.
A new study relying on a unique form of carbon dating suggests that neurons born during adulthood rarely if ever weave themselves into the olfactory bulb's circuitry. In other words, people?unlike other mammals?do not replenish their olfactory bulb neurons, which might be explained by how little most of us rely on our sense of smell. Although the new research casts doubt on the renewal of olfactory bulb neurons in the adult human brain, many neuroscientists are far from ready to end the debate.
In preparation for the new study, Olaf Bergmann and Jonas Fris?n of the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm and their colleagues acquired 14 frozen olfactory bulbs from autopsies performed between 2005 and 2011 at the institute's Department of Forensic Medicine. To determine whether the neurons were younger than the people they came from?which would mean the cells were generated after birth?the researchers needed to isolate the cells' DNA. First, they dissolved the brain tissue into a kind of soup, which they spun at high speeds so that the dense cell bodies and nuclei containing DNA sank to the bottom of the flasks. Using Y-shaped proteins called antibodies, which were hitched to fluorescent markers, the researchers tagged nuclei from both neurons and from glia, non-neuronal brain cells. After a laser-equipped cell-sorting machine identified and separated the nuclei, the researchers isolated and purified the DNA within.
Fris?n and his colleagues analyzed the DNA with a unique form of carbon dating, the technique that paleontologists use to date the fossils and remains of ancient creatures. When the U.S. and Soviet Union conducted nuclear bomb tests during the Cold War, the sparring nations doubled the amount of radioactive carbon 14 in Earth's atmosphere. After the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963, atmospheric C 14 levels began to return to baseline, halving every 11 years as plants and the oceans absorbed the radioactive isotopes (a different process from radioactive decay, which halves the level of C 14 in fossils every 5,700 years). Scientists have documented this steady decline by analyzing ice cores and tree rings, assigning unique atmospheric C 14 levels to each year since 1955.
This record makes it possible to accurately date recently living cells by looking at the amount of C 14 in their DNA. When one cell splits into two?and duplicates its DNA in the process?it uses of some of the organism's current supply of carbon to make DNA's backbone. People get carbon from the animals and plants they eat and plants absorb carbon dioxide?including any C 14?from the air. Therefore, levels of C 14 in the DNA of preserved cells from a deceased organism should match the atmospheric levels of C 14 during the most recent cell division. Scientists only have the opportunity to make use of this unique form of carbon dating for a few more decades, before C 14 levels drop to baseline.
In their new study, Fris?n and Bergmann found that the level of C 14 in olfactory bulb neurons from all the autopsies almost exactly matched the levels of C 14 in the atmosphere when those people were born. Their olfactory bulb neurons were as old as they were?they had never been replaced. Levels of C 14 in glial cells, however, were lower than atmospheric levels of C 14 at the time of the subjects' birth?these cells had divided after the people were born. The results appear in the May 24 issue of Neuron.
Fris?n's findings do not change the fact that the human brain's ventricles are reservoirs of stem cells that can mature into neurons. Likewise, the new results do not challenge the production of new neurons in tissue lining the nasal cavity. Fris?n's latest study, however, adds significant weight to evidence suggesting that the garden of cells in the human olfactory bulb rarely plants new members during adulthood?a conclusion that echoes several recent studies.
Arturo Alvarez-Buylla of the University of California, San Francisco, has detailed how neurons migrate from the ventricles to the olfactory bulb in mice. When he looked for evidence of the same cellular journey in human brains, he found that the steady stream of new neurons produced between birth and 18 months of age dries up by early adulthood. Likewise, a study in China confirmed that ventricles harbor stem cells in the human brain, but found no new neurons in the olfactory bulb. (Scientific American is part of Nature Publishing Group.)
Contrasting these negative results, a 2007 paper in Science?of which Fris?n was a co-author?concluded that immature cells continue to migrate to the olfactory bulb in the adult human brain and mature into neurons. The study relied on brain tissue from people who were, for medical reasons, injected with a chemical called BrdU (bromodeoxyuridine), which closely resembles thymidine?one of the building blocks of DNA. When a cell divides, it incorporates BrdU into the newly duplicated DNA, which allows researchers to identify newborn cells. Pasko Rakic of Yale University, as well as other researchers, has questioned whether BrdU reliably tags newborn cells in adult tissues because the compound can trigger cell division and label dying cells, skewing the results. To compensate for these shortcomings, some studies on neurogenesis have coupled BrdU labeling with antibodies designed to tag proteins that only immature neurons produce. Fris?n and his colleagues invented their carbon dating technique in part to overcome these frustrations.
On account of the contradictory evidence and technical challenges, many neuroscientists are not prepared to put the question of neurogenesis in the human olfactory bulb to rest. In a commentary published in Neuron alongside Fris?n's new study, Jeffrey Macklis of Harvard University argues that although the new study is rigorous, it does not definitively eliminate the possibility that new neurons join the adult human olfactory bulb after birth. As Macklis points out, neurons that migrate from the ventricles to the olfactory bulb in mice, but fail to receive sufficient stimulation in the form of new smells, die. If the same thing happens in the human brain, Fris?n's study would have missed it. Perhaps new neurons migrate through everyone's brains during adulthood, but only remain in the olfactory bulb's circuitry if they find themselves useful. Macklis wonders whether the 14 people in the new study aroused their noses enough to keep new neurons in the olfactory bulb alive. He suggests studying the brains of "chefs, sommeliers, perfumers, vintners, 'foodies'"?connoisseurs of fragrance.
Fred Gage of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, who has worked extensively on neurogenesis in the human brain, thinks that the new findings make sense from an evolutionary perspective. "Animals on all fours, whose noses are right there on the track, have giant olfactory bulbs compared to humans," Gage says. "The new findings might reflect the fact we are not as olfactory dependent."
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Wednesday, June 6, 2012
U.S. nuclear submarine fire linked to vacuum cleaner
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Haier introduces Zing, a waterproof smartphone with Alibaba's Aliyun OS
Zing is right, because you probably didn't see this one coming. Haier, the Chinese consumer electronics company best known for air conditioners, refrigerators, and to a lesser extent, its home theater and mobile phone offerings, has just unleashed a durable phone for the home market with Alibaba's Aliyun OS. The handset is said to be waterproof, dust-proof and shock-proof, and from the looks of it, at least one of those claims is completely legit. The Zing features a 1GHz CPU, a 4-inch WVGA display and a 5-megapixel primary camera. A front-facing VGA shooter is also thrown in for good measure, and the phone will sell for ¥999 (approx. $157) when it hits shelves on June 15th. Perhaps HaiPad owners will consider purchasing a little companion for their tablet.
Haier introduces Zing, a waterproof smartphone with Alibaba's Aliyun OS originally appeared on Engadget on Wed, 06 Jun 2012 20:16:00 EDT. Please see our terms for use of feeds.
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Big Ten prefers plus-1 to 4-team playoff
CHICAGO (AP) ? Big Ten administrators would prefer a plus-one system over a four-team playoff to determine a national champion if the BCS can't be maintained in its current form.
Nebraska chancellor Harvey Perlman said conference presidents would choose to keep the current BCS system as is if there were a vote today. But he added change appears to be inevitable. In the plus-one format, the bowl games would be played, and then the top two teams would meet for the title.
"We think that in many respects, (the current system is) as good as you could do, with obviously some changes about automatic qualifying and perhaps how the top two teams are selected," he said. "But we're also realistic. That doesn't seem to be one that has gotten a lot of support, and that some movement is necessary."
Perlman spoke on a conference call with reporters Monday, a day after presidents and chancellors met at league headquarters in suburban Chicago. As the top conferences negotiate over a playoff system, the Big Ten is showing some flexibility, while remaining adamant that the bowls and its alliance with the Rose Bowl be preserved.
While it prefers the plus-one model, the conference seems willing to listen to proposals for a playoff system. Either way, commissioner Jim Delany acknowledged, the current poll-based system is flawed. A selection committee might be an option in picking the postseason teams, Delany said.
Three meetings this month could go a long way toward molding the playoff model, although Delany said discussions could stretch beyond that ? the BCS meeting June 13 in Chicago; the NCAA Division I Conference Commissioners Association on June 19-20 in Chicago; and the BCS Presidential Oversight Committee June 26 in Washington.
"The key issues are honoring champions, honoring strength of schedule, honoring teams and coaches that try to play good schedules and recognizing a team that plays an additional championship game versus one that doesn't has an additional obstacle of challenge," Delany said.
He has floated the idea in the past that top three conference champions and an at-large team make up the playoff field "as a way to think about who's in the event" but isn't married to that concept.
"We do feel strongly that champions ought to be honored," Perlman said. "There was little disagreement that the polls and certainly the computer polls are not sufficiently transparent. People don't respect them as much as they could. They can't take into account a variety of circumstances. I think we would feel comfortable with a selection committee, but even if you move to a selection committee, I think there are issues about what instructions they're under with regard to how they determine who the best four teams are. We didn't resolve that at this point."
The Big 12 and SEC say the top four teams ? not necessarily conference champions ? should be in a playoff field.
"I would agree. I think it should be the four best teams," Delany said. "I think the question is whether or not a computerized poll managed the way the one is today is an appropriate proxy for the four best teams. I totally agree we should have the four best teams."
He also believes winning a conference championship "should matter."
"That's the way we've been structured for 100 years," he said.
Delany reiterated the Big Ten would like to include the bowls in any postseason format, with the championship game being bid out either to a current site or cities that aren't necessarily bowl hosts. He also said the plus-one scenario remains on the table, and he mentioned the Rose Bowl when he was asked why the conference prefers that option.
"The Rose Bowl, I think, is one of the outstanding sports events, sports properties, sports brands in the world," he said. "I don't think that's an overstatement."
Delany also said there would still be "reasonable access" to championship opportunities for the Big Ten in a plus-one format even if the odds would seem to be better with a playoff.
"When you're working with groups of people, sometimes, you can't have your cake and eat it, too," Delany said. "That's what compromise is about. And you try to avoid demands. I would say one of the reasons we have a chance to come together is not everybody is trying to get their cake and eat it, too."
NOTES: Delany said he's no fan of mega conferences. Asked if he envisions a day where teams from four super conferences compete for a shot at the national championship, Delany he said, "I don't see that." He added: "I think what you'll see is some conferences grow. Some stay where they are. ... We had one 16-team conference ? it was the WAC. It didn't stand very long. We had another conference that went to 12 members and then had to add two to get back to 10. We've seen the Big East morph in a variety of ways. I think one of the most underrated qualities about any conference is its stability and the glue that holds it together." He said conferences that expand too much run into "possible dilution issues." ... Delany said it's not clear how much extra money would be generated by a playoff and probably won't be until after system is hashed out. "We have TV consultants, but they really cannot test the marketplace until they know what they're selling," he said. "And they won't know what they're selling until we reach closure on the model ? the who and the how. ... I think there's a general consensus in the industry that it's a good marketplace for college football."
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Tuesday, June 5, 2012
RNC Web Video Lampoons Obama's Anna Wintour Fundraising Effort
The Republican National Committee? released a new web video Monday lampooning the Obama campaign's latest ?fundraising effort, a web ad with Vogue editor-in-chief Anna Wintour that came out?Friday, ?the same day as the dismal jobs report.
The RNC's online video titled ?"Meanwhile" pokes fun at the Wintour web video, beginning ?with the line "On the same day the unemployment rate rose to 8.2 percent. ?" Both videos are online only.
As Wintour?talks about a fundraiser for the Obama campaign?she is hosting with actress Sarah Jessica Parker and first lady Michelle Obama, unemployment numbers for different groups? before and after the Obama presidency flash on the screen, including a rise in joblessness among women, Hispanics, African-Americans ?and young people.
The web video ends with the line "Obama is focused on keeping his job, but what about yours?"
"There couldn't be a better demonstration of this president's misplaced priorities than a glitzy fundraising video release on the same day that marked more unemployed Americans," said RNC Chairman Reince Priebus in a statement. "It's more than obvious that this president just doesn't get it. Millions are out of work, struggling to make ends meet and all this president cares about is raising money with the rich and famous to protect his own job."??
The Wintour?ad ?effort seems an easy target for Republicans, but a fundraising effort is all it is. The web video is targeted to supporters, especially an audience of young, fashion-conscious women who the Obama campaign hopes will enter the online contest on the chance of spending an evening with Wintour, Parker ?and the Obamas on June 14.??It's similar to a?raffle ?held last month that awarded two free tickets to a George Clooney fundraising dinner?at the actor's Los Angeles home.
Don't count on seeing the Wintour web ad on the air in Ohio or Florida anytime soon, ?as??it would offer too easy of an opening for the?RNC and the Romney campaign to step in?and ?lampoon it ?as the economy continues to struggle.
The ?Obama campaign aired a television ad featuring Sarah Jessica Parker Sunday night on MTV three times. It was its first national TV ad of the election cycle, and it touts Obama's record while also soliciting donations for the same fundraiser.
The Obama campaign did not immediately respond to requests for comment to the web ad.
ABC News' Devin Dwyer contributed to this report.?
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